Jews in Iran during the commemoration of Jewish martyrs of the Iran–Iraq War+Jews in the Muslim world in 2021CountryPopulation 20,000–30,000 14,000 to 26,00010,000-13,0009,865–10,0009,000–15,0002,000–3,3002,000–2,5001,500–2,000500–1,500 500–1,000200–1,000100–200 Separate State Department citation reads less than 200.Others7,000+ (including Jewish expats)Total (approx)73,700 – 109,500Source:
Countless Jewish communities were among the peoples who lived under Muslim rule with the spread of Islam, which began in the early 7th century in the time of Muhammad and the early Muslim conquests.
Under Islamic rule, Jews, along with Christians and certain other pre-Islamic monotheistic religious groups, were considered "People of the Book" and given the status of dhimmi ( 'of the covenant'), which granted them certain rights while imposing specific obligations and restrictions. The treatment of Jews varied significantly depending on the period and location. For example, during the Almohad period in North Africa and Spain, Jews faced harsh persecution and were forced to convert to Islam, flee, or face severe consequences. In contrast, during waves of persecution in medieval Europe, many Jews found refuge in Muslim lands where conditions were comparatively more tolerant during certain eras, such as in the Ottoman Empire, where many Jews living in Spain migrated to after the Expulsion of Jews from Spain.Lewis 1984 p. 62
The introduction of nationalist ideologies (including Zionism and Arab nationalism), the impact of colonial policies, and the establishment of modern nation-states altered the status and the dynamics of Jewish communities in Muslim-majority countries. These shifts culminated in the large-scale emigration of Jews from the Middle East and North Africa and other various Muslim countries during the mid-20th century. Today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to a small fraction of their former sizes, with Azerbaijan, Iran, Nigeria, Uzbekistan and Turkey being home to the largest remaining Jewish populations, followed by significant communities in Morocco, Tunisia, and Kazakhstan and remaining smaller ones in Lebanon, Yemen, Algeria, Syria, Pakistan and Iraq. This was due to Arab nationalism, religious beliefs, economic reasons, widespread persecution, antisemitism, political instability and curbing of human rights in Muslim-majority countries. In 2018, the Jewish Agency for Israel estimated that around 27,000 Jews live in Arab and Muslim countries.
Introduction At the end of the 19th century, early modern chroniclers such as Moïse Franco, Samuel Rozanes, and Abraham Galante began documenting various aspects of Ottoman Jewish history. One of the first works on the subject—at least in French—was Moïse Franco's Essai sur l'Histoire des Israélites de l'Empire Ottoman: Depuis les Origines Jusqu'à Nos Jours (1897).
The second generation of studies focused more on rabbinic responsa, using them as primary historical sources. At the same time, "[Jewish] Orientalists looked back, nostalgically, to medieval Islam, especially Muslim Spain, 'mythically' imagining Islamdom to have been a tolerant society, granting Jews the freedom and equality that they, as Central European Jews, particularly those in Germany, yearned for from their Christian compatriots."
Among the most prominent scholars on this topic is Bernard Lewis, whose book The Jews of Islam remains a key reference in the field. Additionally, the collective volume led by Abdelwahab Meddeb and Benjamin Stora, A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations: From the Origins to the Present Day, provides a comprehensive perspective by incorporating insights from scholars of various backgrounds.
A persistent debate in this field concerns the actual conditions of Jewish life under Muslim rule. Historians offer divergent perspectives, often shaped by historical, ideological, or methodological considerations. The diversity of Jewish experiences across different Muslim dynasties and regions complicates efforts to present a single, uniform narrative.
Bernard Lewis summarized this complexity as follows: The claim to tolerance, now much heard from Muslim apologists and more especially from apologists for Islam, is new and of alien origin." [...] Discrimination was always there, permanent and indeed necessary, inherent in the system and institutionalized in law and practice. Persecution, that is to say, violent and active repression, was rare and atypical.
Historian Mark R. Cohen has a very similar understanding: In addition, he proposes a comparative approach to understanding Jewish life under Islamic rule, noting that Jews in Islamic lands often experienced less physical violence than Jews under Western Christendom. He posits that Muslims considered Jews less theologically threatening than Christians did, suggesting that the Christians wanted to establish a separate religious identity from Judaism, from which their faith split and diverged. According to him, instances of persecution were occasional, more the exception than the rule.
In contrast, historians as Raphael Israeli, Paul Fenton, David Littman present a significantly different perspective, emphasizing the structural discrimination and subjugation of Jews under Islamic rule. Israeli further stresses that, unlike in Christian Europe, where Jews were often expelled, Muslim rulers typically allowed Jewish communities to remain but under conditions of perpetual dependency and vulnerability to arbitrary state policies. Raphael Israeli argues that the perception of Islamic tolerance toward Jews is an oversimplification that ignores the recurrent episodes of forced conversion, massacres, and humiliating regulations imposed on Jewish communities throughout Islamic history.
The situation where Jews in the Muslim world both enjoyed cultural and economic prosperity at times, but were widely persecuted there at other times, was summarised in 1971 by the historian Gustave E. von Grunebaum:
It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.
The emergence of Islam Since classical antiquity, Jewish communities have existed across the East Asia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean that would later come to be parts of the Muslim world. By the time of the early Muslim conquests in the seventh century, these ancient communities had been ruled by various empires and included the Babylonian, Persian, Carthaginian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and Yemenite Jews.
Jewish tribes in Medina By the time of Muhammad’s birth in 570 CE, the Jewish communities of the Hijaz had become integral to Arabian society, participating as merchants, farmers, poets, artisans, and warriors. At the time of his migration to Yathrib (Medina) in 622 CE, Jewish tribes such as the Banu Qurayza, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qaynuqa coexisted with Arab tribes like the Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj. These groups often lived together based on shared economic, social, and political interests rather than strict tribal divisions. In Medina, the Jewish tribes held significant influence, including control over agriculture and the ability to act as intermediaries in local disputes.
The constitution of Medina Upon arriving in Medina, Muhammad mediated between the city’s factions and established the Constitution of Medina, which aimed to unify its Jewish and Muslim inhabitants. This agreement declared, “The Jews of the Banu Awf are one community (umma) with the believers. The Jews have their laws (dīn), and the Muslims have theirs.” Other Jewish tribes were also included in the agreement, which emphasized mutual support and protection against external threats. Scholars suggest that the final redaction of this agreement may have been made after conflicts between Muhammad and certain Jewish groups escalated.
Islam’s connections to Judaism The Qur’an reflects a cultural and religious heritage influenced by Judaism. Many Qur’anic stories about figures such as Moses, Joseph, and David align with Jewish midrashic traditions rather than directly with the Tanakh. Islamic concepts like zakāt (almsgiving), salāt (prayer), and nabī (prophet) have roots in Hebrew and Aramaic, indicating linguistic and theological connections. “Islam and Judaism shared another fundamental worldview: both religions were from the beginning religions where practice, religious law, and ritual purity are central.”
Conflicts and expulsions Over time, tensions between Muhammad and certain Jewish tribes grew. The Banu Qaynuqa were expelled after a confrontation, while the Banu Nadir were forced to leave following accusations of conspiring against Muhammad. The Banu Qurayza, accused of allying with Muhammad’s Meccan enemies, faced the harshest fate: the men were executed, and the women and children were enslaved. This period was characterized by “a fateful and sometimes fatal conflict with Islam.”
Jewish communities after conflict Even after the expulsion and subjugation of several Jewish tribes, Jewish communities persisted in other regions of Arabia. In Khaibar, Jews remained under treaty agreements, provided they paid an annual capitulation tax (Jizya). Some Jewish groups migrated to the Holy Land, while others maintained connections with Jewish intellectual and religious centers in Babylonia and Palestine. These events illustrate the diverse outcomes of Muhammad’s interactions with Jewish communities, ranging from conflict to coexistence under negotiated terms.
Reflections in the Qur’an The Qur’an provides insight into Muhammad’s encounters with Arabian Jews. It refers to Jewish practices and beliefs while addressing specific disagreements, such as claims about Ezra being regarded as a "son of God" or critiques of mystical practices. Shared ethical values and practices, such as the laws of kashrut, reflect the broader religious context in which Islam emerged.
During the caliphates
Leon Poliakov wrote that Jews in Medina could freely practice their own teachings so long as they respected and paid tributes towards Muslims under the Pact of Umar.
Jews and Muslims in the eastern islamic world (7th–13th centuries) For much of the medieval period, Jews were treated as equals by Muslims due to their similarities shared in both religion's central monotheistic theme and scriptures. The Charter of Medina was then issued by Muhammad to create an interreligious harmony between the two religion, following the Muslims relocation to Medina. Strife between the two however replaced replaced the charter by recognizing Jews as dhimmis.
Conquests and governance Following the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, the Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid caliphates conquered many regions with significant Jewish population strecthing from Spain (specifically Toledo, Córdoba, Granada) and North Africa. Jewish aspects of life including political, legal, social, economic, and cultural were improved. Jews were granted second-class citizenship in these areas, given rights and protection (for a pay of jizya), and able to practice freely.
Migration and urbanization Jewish populations shifted, increasingly toward urban centers, driven in part by economic opportunities and the imposition of land taxes (kharāj) on non-Muslims. "Urbanization itself thus made life for peasants more difficult, and ultimately, the burden of subsistence farming and the increasing viability of earning a livelihood through crafts and trade encouraged many to move to towns and cities".
Integration with urban elites