Vijayanagara literature in Kannada is the body of literature composed in the Kannada language of South India during the ascendancy of the Vijayanagara Empire which lasted from the 14th through the 16th century. The Vijayanagara empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I. Although it lasted until 1664, its power declined after a major military defeat by the Shahi Sultanates in the battle of Talikota in 1565. The empire is named after its capital city Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround modern Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka.
Kannada literature during this period consisted of writings relating to the socio-religious developments of the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava faiths, and to a lesser extent to that of Jainism.Sastri 1955, pp. 359–365Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 21–23 Writing on secular topics was popular throughout this period.Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 61–65 Authorship of these writings was not limited to poets and scholars alone. Significant literary contributions were made by members of the royal family, their ministers, army commanders of rank, nobility and the various subordinate rulers. In addition, a vast body of devotional folk literature was written by musical bards, mystics and saint-poets, influencing society in the empire. Writers of this period popularised use of the native metres: (six-line verse), (compositions meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), and (three-line verse).Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp. 190–200
The development of Veerashaiva literature was at its peak during the reign of King Deva Raya II, the best-known of the Sangama dynasty rulers.Sastri (1955), p244 The rule of King Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty and his successors was a high point in Vaishnava literature.Rice E. P. (1921), p. 70 The influence of Jain literature, which had dominated Kannada language in the previous centuries, was on the wane with increasing competition from the resurgent Veerashaiva faith and Vaishnava bhakti movement (devotional movement of the haridasas).Rice E. P. (1921), pp. 45–46 Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures left lasting influences that continued after the Vijayanagara era.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 27–28
Court literature
Overview
Before the 12th century, Jain writers had dominated Kannada literature with their (verses mixed with prose) style of writings popular in court literature. In the later medieval period, they had to contend with the Veerashaivas who challenged the very notion of royal literature with their poetry, a stylised form of spoken language, more popular in folk genres.Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 356 The popular growth of Veerashaiva (devotees of the Hindu god Shiva) literature began in the 12th century, while Vaishnava (devotees of the Hindu god Vishnu) writers began to exert their influence from the 15th century. Jain writers had to reinvent their art, moving away from the traditional themes of renunciation and tenets to focus on contemporary topics. Andayya's 13th century classic ("Poets defender") was an early example of the change in literary style, and also reflected the hostility toward the Veerashaivas; the Jain author found it ideal to narrate the story of Manmatha, the God of Love, who turned Shiva into a half woman.Nagaraj (2003), p. 366 The Veerashaivas had initiated an important change, casting aside the concept of formal literature and making way for shorter local genres. The Vaishnava haridasas later popularised musical forms that were more acceptable to the common man.Shiva Prakash (1997) p. 163 Written classics eulogising kings and commanders were a thing of the past. Kannada literature had moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with singability being its hallmark, and devotion to God its goal.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 167, 202
This significant shift in the literary landscape was coupled with major political changes that were taking place in southern India in the early 14th century. With the decline of the regional Hindu kingdoms, the Vijayanagara Empire had risen as a bulwark against Muslim incursions from the north while creating an atmosphere conducive to development of the fine arts.Kamath (2001), p. 157Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 164 In an important age of Kannada literature, competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers came to the fore. Literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects.Sastri (1955), p. 363 With the exception of the best-known writers from these faiths, many authors produced lesser quality writings with a sectarian and propagandist bent.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 164, 211
The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other: the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty; and the Bhakti (devotion) poets who played no role in courtly matters, instead taking the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres. Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well known among the Brahmin commentators, while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most famous of the Bhakti writers.Nagaraj (2003), p. 368 The philosophy of Madhvacharya, which originated in the Kannada–speaking region in the 13th century, spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries. The itinerant haridasas, best described as mystic saint-poets, spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada, winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of (enlightenment), (devotion) and (detachment).Sharma (1961), p. 514–555
This was the age of the metre, although only the most skilled of poets, such as Chamarasa, Kumara Vyasa, Kanaka Dasa and Bhaskara used it to the best effect.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 212 Mentioned for the first time in Kannada literature by Nagavarma I in his (c. 990) and successfully used by the 12th century Hoysala poet Raghavanka,Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1181 this hexa-metre style suited for narrative poetry found immense popularity throughout the Vijayanagara period.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4002 The metre (string of 100 verses) was put to best use by the Veerashaivas who produced most of the didactic writings in this metre, although the Jain poet Ratnakaravarni is the most famous exponent of it. The writings of Ratnakaravarni and Kanaka Dasa in metre are considered masterpieces from this period.
In the royal courts, there was increased interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, continuing a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well-known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. Some Telugu poets, including Dhurjati, were so well versed in Kannada that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. It was because of this "familiarity" with Kannada language that the notable writer Srinatha called his Telugu writings "Kannada". Translations by bilingual writers continued in the centuries to follow.Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 27–28
With the disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the centres of Kannada literature moved to the courts of the emerging independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayakas. Writers in these courts, many of whom were Veerashaiva by faith, were not only adept in Kannada but often also in Sanskrit and/or Telugu. Two such writers were Kalale Nanjaraja and Kempe Gowda, the founder of Bangalore. This multi-linguality was perhaps a lingering legacy of the cosmopolitan Vijayanagara literary cultureNagaraj (2003), p. 377 and the emerging social responsibilities of the Veerashaiva monastic order which no longer confined itself to a Kannada only audience, but rather sought to spread its influence across southern India.Nagaraj (2003), p. 378
In the Kingdom of Mysore, the Veerashaiva literary school was challenged by the growing influence of the Srivaishnava intelligentsia in the Wodeyar court. The Srivaishnava writers (followers of a sect of Vaishnavism) of Kannada literature were also in competition with Telugu and Sanskrit writers, their predominance continuing into the English colonial rule over the princely state of Mysore.Nagaraj (2003), pp. 378–379 Meanwhile, the radical writings of 16th-century poet Ratnakaravarni had made way for a new kind of poetry heralded by those who were not poets in the traditional courtly sense, rather itinerant poets who travelled across the Kannada-speaking region, cutting across court and monastery, writing poems (in the metre) and influencing the lives of people with their humanistic values which overcame the social barriers of caste and religion. Sarvajna (often compared to Telugu poet Vemana), Sisunala Sherif, Mupina Sadakshari, Navalingayogi and Kadakolada Madivalappa are the best-known among them. These maverick poets heralded yet another epoch of unconventional literature in Kannada language, free of courtly conservatism and established literary tastes.
Vaishnava writings
Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics, the , the and the , as well as the Vedanta and other subjects from the Hindu puranic traditions.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 61 This was the age of Kumara Vyasa, an influential Vaishnava poet and a doyen of medieval Kannada epic poetry. Historians have drawn parallels between Adikavi Pampa (c. 941) and Kumaraya Vyasa, while identifying fundamental differences in their style. Both are considered masters of their respective periods; while Pampa is identified as a stylist of the classical age, Kumara Vyasa is considered a generalist of the medieval age. Unlike Pampa, a product of the (Sanskritic-mainstream) period of Kannada literature, Kumara Vyasa successfully wielded the flexibility of the (native) metre, which used a range of language that included metaphors, similes, humour and even vulgarity.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 208–209
Kumara Vyasa wrote in 1430 in the Vyasa tradition. The title of the work is a reference to (modern Gadag), where the author lived. The writing is based on the first ten chapters of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and is also alternatively titled or . It is a dedication to the deity of Gadag and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Hindu god Krishna. Unlike Pampa, who adhered to a strictly Jain interpretation of the epic in his (941), eulogising Pandava Arjuna as the hero, making Draupadi solely Arjuna's wife and casting the Kaurava prince Duryodhana and his loyal companion Karna as lofty individuals, Kumara Vyasa portrays all characters with the exception of Krishna as deeply human with foibles. His depiction of the secondary characters, such as the cunning Keechaka and the coward Uttara Kumara, is also noteworthy.Rice E. P. (1921), p. 31Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 37 An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marks the transition in Kannada literature from old to modern.Sastri (1955), p. 364 Particularly known for his use of sophisticated metaphors, Kumara Vyasa earned the title ("Emperor of the land of Metaphors"). The remaining chapters of the epic were translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) of the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work after his patron king.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 69Kamath (2001), p. 182 (1430) by Kumara Vyasa recounts an episode from the Mahabharata and is a story of the elephant ridden by god Indra.